he study of Egyptian mummification is constantly changing. Until recently, it was believed that the first mummy was Merenre I (Nemtyemsaf II) from circa 2300 BCE. In 1997, excavations began at Hierakonopolis revealing a large predyanstic cemetery full of mummies. Bodies were in shallow pits in the desert sand. Importantly, they will wrapped in linen bandages, with additional pads of linen inserted to flesh out the bodies. In addition, resin was applied both to the body and the linen wrapping.

Mummy (saah in Ancient Egyptian) is defined as a body embalmed after death. The source is from the Persian for bitumen, mum. Originally, it was thought that bitumen was used in the mummification process, not resin.

This essay will cover the mummification process from the middle of the Archaic Period until the New Kingdom. The dates covered will be from approximately 3050 BCE until 1069 BCE. All dates discussed throughout the paper will be before the Common Era unless otherwise noted. The goal is to explain, in depth, the development of and changes in the mummification process throughout Egyptian history. We will be taking a scientific look into this process, followed by an analysis of modern scientific techniques that are applied to the analysis of mummies.

The discussion of mummification will mainly cover the embalming process. Sections on each set of dynasties will structure this analysis. The dynasties will be grouped by major changes in the procedures and customs of mummification.

Very much can be learned from modern scientific analysis of mummies. For instance, information about ancient diseases and the effects they had on people can be learned. A mummy supplies many sources for this information including blood, hair, and bone.

The New Kingdom is seen as the golden age of embalming. During this time, the process reaches its most perfect achievements. It has good records of the procedure for mummification, and a large number of samples of well-preserved mummies. Embalming supplies are also prevalent, including operating tables, tables for wrapping and the various scalpels and other implements used by the embalmers.

The Egyptian conception of the afterlife is vital to the understanding of mummification. The physical corpse seems to represent the dead person's earthly existence. From this, it follows logically that the body should be kept in as perfect a form as possible. If the body was somehow damaged, it could be "repaired" during the embalming process. Supplies that would be necessary for the body in the afterlife were buried along with it, also. Osiris is the Egyptian god that is the archetype mummy. According to myth, he was murdered and is dismembered by his brother, Seth. His body is then rescued and reassembled by his wife, Isis, embalmed by the jackal-headed god, Anubis, and resurrected to become ruler and judge of the dead and god of the Afterlife. Anubis becomes the god of mummification. There is also a notion of the "Fields of Iaru", which was a celestial Egypt and a primary theme in the life after death.

General Discussion of Mummification

A

side from the mummies themselves and the hieroglyphics in the tombs, there are number of literal sources for the embalming procedure.[1] Herodotus' Histories describes three types of mummification.

Herodotus describes the "most perfect process" as the best but also most expensive method. This, in fact, matches later methods of embalming for many royal mummies in the later periods. The second method is performed "for reasons of expense" does not have an incision for evisceration, but instead oil is injected through the anus which dissolves the internal organs. The third method, "used for embalming the bodies of the poor" involves simply washing out the intestines and drying the body in natron for 70 days.[2]

Two other sources commonly used by scholars are Diodorus Siculus (c. 80) and Porphyry (3^rd century CE). These three accounts have contributed to the basis for the study of technique in mummification and embalming. Much of Diodorus' account agrees with that of Herodotus. Porphyry is one of the few sources to mention that the viscera are removed and placed in a canopic chest.

Natron Salts

Natron salts were the most important ingredient in the equation of embalming. In Egyptian, natron is netjry. It is most often comprised of Sodium Bicarbonate (HNaCO₃), Sodium Carbonate Na₂(CO₃), Sodium Sulfate (Na₂SO₄) and Sodium Chloride (NaCl). While most natron has this combination, it does vary widely in mixture. Natron was used as both a desiccating and defatting agent. Desiccation describes the removal of water and its preservative attributes, too.

Natron is found naturally in Egypt, most commonly in the Wadi Natrun, an area 64 km northwest of Cairo. The water at the edges of the lake and around it would evaporate. This left a white residue, natron, that was collected and used by the embalmers. It also comes from the Barnugi district in the Beheira province (about 70 km north of Wadi Natrun). In the south, el Kab was the source for natron salts.

Resin

Resin became a popular ingredient of mummification in the 12^th Dynasty. In fact, it is the second most important ingredient, after natron. In fact, it is the source for the term, "mummy". Until the 20^th century CE, the black material used in mummies was thought to be bitumen. As mentioned above, the Persian word for wax, bitumen and pitch is mum.

However, bitumen is very different from resin. It is a viscous liquid that originates from petroleum and a mixture of minerals. Resin on the other hand, is from trees. Most resin came from the cedars, firs and pines of Lebanon and Syria. Resin was more popular because it is known to inhibit bacteria. In addition, it deodorized the body, which was very important to the Egyptians in preparation for the Hereafter.

Time

According to most sources the total time it took for the entire mummification process from death to burial is close to 70 days. The drying process took 40 days and the rest of the time was for evisceration, preparation, wrapping and entombment.

In Genesis, Chapter 50, lines 1-3, the death of Jacob is described. His son, Joseph, instructs his servants to embalm him and it is said to take 40 days for the body to dry. The number 70 coincides with the appearance cycle of the star Sirius. The Sirius star is associated with Osisris, the god of the afterlife (see above).

Often, women were not given to the embalmers immediately. Instead, they were allowed to sit and putrefy for a few days. This was a measure to prevent necrophilia. However, this caused problems with the embalming process and many female mummies are in poorer condition than their male counterparts.

Viscera

Herodotus and Diodorus Sicilus do not make any mention of the treatment of the viscera (the internal organs, especially those in the abdomen and thorax). According to Plutarch, they were thrown in the Nile and according to Porphyry they were removed and placed in jars. This was the most common process in the later periods. We will discuss the viscera in much more depth below.

Embalmers – Who are these people?

Very little is known about the actual embalmers. It is known that the actual wrapping was performed by priests, one of whom was masked of Anubis, the god of mummification. This priest performs the actual wrapping, while others assist and chant spells as appropriate.

According to Herodotus, the embalmers were a special group of men belonging to different workshops and the position was passed down hereditarily.[3] Documents from the third century describe guilds of embalmers and the amounts charged for various services. Diodorus says they embalmers are honored and respected. This is quite reasonable. After all, they are responsible for the preparation of the body for the all-important afterlife.

A number of embalmers' caches have been found in Egypt. They contain many items for embalming such as oils, tables, linen and salt. It appears that materials were not reused and instead were buried, sometimes with the body from whence they came.

Summary of the Development of Mummification

ummification originates from the predyanstic period. At the time, bodies were interred in sandy pits with a few grave goods. These bodies naturally desiccated in the dry, sandy conditions. When winds or wild animals would clear the sand from the bodies, the early Egyptians would notice the condition in which the bodies were. Realizing the importance of retaining as near a resemblance to life as possible, they set out to discover an artificial way of replicating the desiccation.

In the Old Kingdom (c. 2600), the body was wrapped and molded in plaster-soaked linen to resemble a statue. During the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000), evisceration became more popular. The process began to resemble Herodotus' second method. Once the New Kingdom began (c. 1500), the brain was regularly removed. It is possible that after removal, the brain was placed in a bundle called the "Tekenu" and placed in the tombs. In the Third Intermediate Period, the quality of the preservation decreased. There was an overuse of resin and regular salt was being used, not natron. It is important to note, however, that in any given time period no single process was used exclusively. Very often, there was a process that was more fashionable or price-affected.

Timeline of Mummification (3050 – 1064)

Archaic Period and Old Kingdom (3050 – 2195)

Very few mummies from this period have survived. Most were wrapped in linen and placed in a rectangular clay or wooden coffin or a stone sarcophagus. Often, the body was in a flexed position and the viscera were intact in the earlier specimens. In the 1^st Dynasty, some were on beds of some form.

A woman from Saqqara in the 2^nd Dynasty was found in 1911 by James Quibell. She was probably treated with natron and bandaged underneath more than 16 layers. Each limb was separately wrapped with the outermost layer worked to show genitalia.

Evisceration began in the 4^th D. Queen Hetepferes, mother of Kheops, the second Pharaoh of the 4^th D. is a good example of this. Her body had been moved upon discovery of the tomb, but jars containing her viscera in packages remained in the tomb. From then on, bodies are eviscerated through an incision on the left side and then the cavities filled with linen.

It was very popular during the Old Kingdom to have very elaborate wrapping and painting of the mummies. The body would often be made into a virtual linen statue. Ranefer is a mummy from the 5^th D. found in Tomb 9 at Meidum. The linen covering his body is painted and the body modeled. His genitals are modeled to show his circumcision. His brain was left in the skull and the skull rattled when shaken. His other internal organs were eviscerated and left in the tomb.

There is an issue of defleshing to be considered. Very often there is a lack of flesh on the bodies, especially in older, predyanstic samples. It is possible that the epidermis was removed during the process of mummification by the embalmers, but there are more likely explanations: It could have been natural decomposition as a result of the lack of evisceration which caused flesh to crumble and the bandages would slip, exposing the skin. In addition, many mummies from the Old Kingdom retain enough hair and skin for it not to have been purposeful defleshing.

1^st Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom (2195 – 1650)

In the Intermediate Period, mummification continues to include natron desiccation, bandaging and evisceration. Now, the viscera are separately cured and placed into canopic chests. Mummies are no longer molded into statues and facial modeling becomes less common.

The evisceration continued into the Middle Kingdom. The process most often occurred through an incision in the left flank, but not all mummies had signs of this. Many such mummies were related in some way to Mentuhotep II (c. 2014) and showed signs of viscera dissolved and partially extracted through the rectum. There was evidence of dilated recta and vaginas, some with bits of tissue (usually intestine) projecting from the anus. The dilation may have been caused by partial decay.

It is postulated that oleo-resin, which is similar to turpentine, was injected into the anus to dissolve organs. This was only partially successful. As the foul smell would have been unacceptable, the turpentine was perfumed with juniper oil, as the foul smell would have been unacceptable. The bodies may also have been filled with resin through the anus.

2^nd Intermediate Period and New Kingdom (1650 – 1064?)

17^th Dynasty

In the 17^th D., there is, for the first time, a difference between private and royal mummies. Many mummies have empty crania, and the use of resin is very high. Still, each limb is individually wrapped with the arms placed along the sides (this continues into the 18^th D.). Men's hands are placed over the genitals and women's on the thighs.

The story[4] of King Taa II (c. 1553) is one of the most dramatic and violent of all the mummy's. Taa II is credited with instigating the fight against the Hyksos in an attempt to drive them out and reunite Egypt. His skull is covered in horrendously violent and graphic wounds. There is a dagger thrust behind his ear and mace blows to the cheek and nose, along with a cut above the forehead cause perhaps by an ax. Through scientific study of the wounds, the wound behind the ear may have begun to heal, which would mean it occurred at least slightly before he died. It is possible that he was weakened and assassinated in his palace, as he was left unable to assist his troops on the battlefield as a result of the wound.

18^th – 20^th Dynasties

During these times (1549 – 1069), a period known as the New Kingdom, mummification hits its "Classic" phase. We will analyze this period in much greater depth as many different types of mummification were being practiced simultaneously. However, this is the period where the processes reach their highest level of success and complexity. A number of changes come about at this time, most as a result of realization of improvements and mistakes from previous periods. It is also, no doubt, a reflection of changing importance of and dedication to the body's preparedness for the Hereafter. After the 20^th D., the level of craftsmanship and the quality of preservation of the body decreases rapidly. Hence, this is known as the "Golden Age" for Egyptian mummification.

It became standard practice to remove the brain in the 18^th D. It was removed through the nose by breaking the ethmoid bone. A long, thin, metal tool was inserted through the left nostril and gyrated, liquefying the brain. The mummy would then be held upright or turned on the belly and the brain liquid would drip out through the nose.

In about 1524, Amosis had his brain removed from an incision on the left side of the neck. The atlas vertebra were removed and the brain extracted through the foramen magnum. Then, the empty cranium was packed with linen. There are a few isolated cases of similar treatment in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but the process never gained popularity.

The use of resin was very common in the New Kingdom. It was applied to various body parts including the face, body, cranium (through nose), nostrils, and as little balls to plug the ears and sometimes the anus. Tutankhamun's body had so much resin used, heated knives were necessary to separate the body from the coffin. Resin was also used to seal flank incisions, and in the case of the wealthy, it was covered by a piece of metal (usually gold).

Prior to the mummy of Tuthmosis III (18^th D., c. 1424), the flank incision was a vertical cut down the left side, perpendicular to the ribcage. For Tuthmosis and afterwards, the cut became a diagonal incision from the hipbone to the pubes. Tuthmosis had his incision stitched instead of resin. After this, both resin and stitching were commonly used. By the 20^th D., stitching became the norm.

Treatment of the viscera changed quite dramatically during the New Kingdom. Embalmers would use their hands through the incision and remove the stomach, liver and intestines. Then, they would cut through the diaphragm (the muscle dividing the abdomen and the thorax) and remove the lungs. Occasionally, the heart would become dislodged and inadvertently be removed. It had to be replaced, however, because the heart was necessary for judgment to weigh the soul.[5]

The viscera would be treated with natron salts for desiccation and with spices for scenting them. Then, they were wrapped and placed in canopic containers. In the 20^th D., the custom to replace the mummified viscera in the body cavity is begun. Subsequently, this becomes more common. It should be noted that the organs are not placed in any particular order, as is exemplified by Ramesses II's thorax (see below, "Radiological Research").

The body cavity in the New Kingdom was washed with water followed by palm wine. The wine may have had a slight disinfectant affect, due to alcohol content. Then, the cavity would be packed with natron, myrrh and possibly frankincense (for scent), resin (disinfectant and bacteria control) and linen (absorbs liquid).

The body would also be covered on the outside with natron after all the preparations were completed. It is unsure whether the natron and incense filler would be changed during the desiccation. Bob Brier experimented mummifying a human body in the mid-1990s.[6] He did not change the natron and it took over 90 days to dry, well over the 40 days it is recorded to have taken in Egypt. Even after more than twice that, the results were still not satisfactory. From this, it can be concluded that in order to get the best job of drying and scenting done, it would be necessary to change the natron and incense whenever they became damp from bodily secretions, oils and water. During the natron process, the nails show evidence of being tied on with string. This saved the nails from falling off as the skin shrank during the desiccation.

In the final wrap, the body was filled with resin-impregnated linen. This would help the body to hold shape and also help deter insects.

During the 20^th D., onions began showing up in mummies and their coffins. Ramesses IV had small onions as eyes, onions in his ears and each nostril was filled with resin and then covered with a thin onionskin. Others in the 3^rd Intermediate Period had onions present on their chest, their pelvic area and throughout the wrapping. An obvious question is: Why onions? For one thing, they serve an antiseptic purpose. In addition, it may have been because of the strong odor helping to prepare and aid the mummy's nose in the transition to the Hereafter.

The male genitalia was a very important part of the royal anatomy. This was even explicit in the King's title, "Strong Bull". Tut's mummy was ithyphallic, or was depicted with its member fully erect. The mummified penis has now disappeared, possibly lost during World War II. Tuthmosis III, on the other hand, had the penis tied tightly against his thigh. This was, perhaps, to avoid the loss of this vital part to the anatomy.

When a member or other extremity falls off, embalmers would attempt to provide a replica using resin and/or bandages. It could fall off due to desiccation or rapid decomposition. Even when a part was lost in a grave robbery or due to other human fault, it would often be "rebuilt" by embalmers. The reasoning behind the replacement was to keep the king from being "deficient" in the afterworld.

Introduction to the Scientific Research

ver the last century, and especially in the last 30 years, mummies have been studied under increasingly sophisticated scientific tests. These tests range from x-rays to CAT scans and beyond.

The addition of use of the scanning electron microscope has added a huge range of research possibilities. Other techniques and approaches that are still used today are endoscopy, histopathology, blood group analysis and DNA testing. Histopatholgy is a branch of pathology concerned with the tissue changes characteristic of diseases.

These new techniques have helped Egyptologists and scientists understand the diseases suffered in ancient Egypt, the diet of the Egyptians, familial relationships between mummies and, of course, methods of mummification.

Early interest in researching Egyptian mummies was rooted in the determination to discover what race ancient Egyptians were. Cranial measurements were popular at the time in the field of physical anthropology. These measurements would be compared to certain measurements to determine the race of the ancients. It has not, as yet, been determined that Egyptians had a specific racial type, but instead were a mixture of various physical types.

There was also the study of phrenology, which is a "science" that seeks to determine the personality and character of an individual from the shape and bumps in the skull. This was very popular a century ago. This aroused a great interest in mummy crania. Thankfully, interest dissipated when it was realized to be inaccurate and unreliable.

A short discussion of climatic conditions is necessary. Although it has not been determined what climatic conditions were present in the tombs at the time of the Pharaohs, it is widely agreed that those conditions were relatively very constant. Both the heat and hygrometric conditions in tombs were excellent as attested to by the state of the paintings within them. Another advantage was the lack of direct sunlight. It is well-known that UV can harm many fabrics and materials.

Unfortunately, many mummies were stored in the Royal Mummies Room in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. This wing was located on the second floor of the museum. The hall undergoes great changes in temperature and hygrometric level. In addition, the mummies are surrounded in glass, but the containers are not hermetically sealed. This allows for contaminants such as insects, bacteria and fungi to infest the delicate tissues of the bodies and the wrappings. For instance, mummies were opened and it was observed that there was a presence of tobacco in the mummy.[7] It is believed that the tobacco is, in fact, not from 3000 years ago, but instead from the observers who were not properly sealed off from the mummies.

Tutankhamun's Mummy and Research

King Tut's tomb was originally found almost completely untouched. The body was intact and protected by several coffins. It was decided that the mummy should be unwrapped to find any precious artifacts. This took place in the tomb where x-ray could not be used to investigate the mummy.[8] Instead, the mummy would have had to be transported, along with all the coffins, to an x-ray clinic. X-ray would have helped tremendously so that scientists could have located the precious jewels and therefore disturbed the body less during the unwrapping process.

When the body was unwrapped, the development of bones became visible. It is possible to estimate the age of the body by analyzing the growth of bones and other parts. Filce Leek, a well-respected Egyptologist, estimates that Tut died at the age of 16 or 17 years old.

Disease Research in Mummies

Ramesses V

Ramesses V (20^th D., c. 1141) was found with an extremely large scrotum. This was even though shrinkage had occurred as a result of the natron treatment drying the skin. This indicates that the pharaoh suffered from an inguinal hernia of somewhat considerable size. This is an example of medical research showing the existence of a malady that has been suffered throughout the ages, even since ancient times. This is one of the many goals of "paleopathology", a phrase coined by Dr. Marc A. Ruffer.

Merneptah-Siptah

Merneptah-Siptah (19^th D., c. 1200) was the successor of Ramesses II and quite possibly the pharaoh at the time of the Exodus. Merneptah (or Merenptah) had what appeared to be a clubbed left foot. Later, it was considered that it may have been the result of infantile paralysis which led to atrophy. Professor Amin Rida performed a study of these facts in 1964. He mentions other material with allusions to the same disease. It was determined that Merneptah suffered from polio and that the ailment existed in Egypt as early as the 14^th-15^th centuries or possibly even earlier.

Schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by schistosomosa haematobia, a parasitic worm. The worm enters the body, lays eggs and these eggs are released into the bloodstream. Through the bloodstream, they gain access to the intestine and bladder. Symptoms include enlarged genitalia, blood in the urine and baldness.

The disease is present today in nearly all inhabitants of the Nile Valley.[9] This is caused by the presence of the worm in the Nile River's water, living in snails as temporary hosts. Schistosomiasis shows in a large percentage of mummies, especially the poor, fishermen, farmers and housewives.

Skin Disease

Many skin diseases are unimportant except for the fact that they even remain through the ages. However, it has proven important in comparisons between mummies and can help establish a bloodline or direct relation. Ramesses IV seems to have an ulceration of the penis, but there is no formal proof of venereal disease existing in ancient Egypt. Instead, it probably just marks a loss of matter and epidermis or damage done during the unwrapping process in modern times.

Skin disease helped to establish direct relations between three pharaohs in the 18^th D. Tuthmosis II, Tuthmosis III and Amenophis II are direct descendants in that order. They passed skin lesions on to each generation. It was once believed that the disease may indeed be the "boils" from the biblical plagues before the Exodus.[10] According to Bucaille, this is probably untrue as it was passed on to the next generations and this shows it was genetic, not biblical. However, it may indeed be true because a number of generations were already born when plague is said to have occurred. Another explanation could be that the curse was a genetic alteration, also.

Marc Amand Ruffer

Ruffer coined the phrase "paleopathology"[11], the study of diseases in ancient times. He has studied many tissues as well as organs that had dried beyond recognition. Other dieases that have shown up in his research include arterial artheroma, lung infections, renal suppurations, cirrhosis of the liver, anthracosis of the lungs and others. However, he did not take pictures; all we have is his drawings and sketches. There, unfortunately, not enough tissues today to perform more advanced studies with more modern technology that is now available.

Arteriosclerosis in Ramesses II

A number of sources have cited a calcification (arteriosclerosis) of the femoral arteries on both legs. The femoral arteries are the main arteries that pass through the hips, near the femur. This makes for a difficulty in blood circulation and ambulation (walking).[12] This was also present in the carotid arteries. The carotid arteries are the two main arteries in the neck, which carry blood to the brain.

Microscopic Research

ossibly the hardest part of microscopic research of mummies is the preparation of the samples. Normally, a microscopic sample is treated with a solution called a fixture. This solution is then incorporated into a block of paraffin and cut into extremely thin slices using a microtome. These thing slices are then bathed in various dyes to assist the operator in seeing the sample more clearly.

In the case of mummies, the sample must first be rehydrated. This is a very sensitive process which is necessary so that the sample may withstand the cutting. If it is over-rehydrated, it will turn to useless pulp and under-rehydration renders it useless, also. In addition, the proper fixture solution must be found that will not damage the sample. Dr. Ruffer developed a technique that is still in use today.

Today, we can also use scanning electron microscopes. This allows for detail that could never have been achieved previously. These highly advance microscopes can distinguish tiny elements within the cells themselves.

Examination of a Sample

For this example, sample from a 19^th D. woman (c. 1200) will be studied.[13] French professors, Jacques Mignot and Michel Durigon, studied it. The sample included various layers of thoracic covering. However, there was no epidermis (upper/outer layer of skin), which may have been caused by burns from natron, the equivalent of second-degree burns, or by the removal process for the wrappings (see above). The underlying layers of skin have their natural features.

There are three important features of the sample to discuss:

Muscular Fibrillae

Together, these fibrillae form muscular tissue. The transversal striation (muscle tissue that is marked by transverse dark and light bands, that is made up of elongated multinuclear fibers [Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary]) is a type of muscle only found in skeletal muscle. For instance, intestinal muscle does not have these striations. This is especially interesting because the researchers were able to determine this in tissues that are thousands of years old. In fact, mummification was done so well that tissue features normally measured to an accuracy of 1/1000 mm were kept perfectly preserved.

Cells

Different layers of skin have different types of cells. Each layer was distinguishable in the sample used. The lowest layer has cells with their nuclei. Moving up, the cells are larger and gradually lose their nuclei, becoming anuclear. Once again, it is impressive to note that the difference between these levels is clearly noticeable.

Blood Cells

Blood cells are well-known for their unstable properties, especially in the case of red blood cells. The professors were able to isolate and identify each type of blood cells. On one slide, the red blood cells were clearly distinguishable. This is a perfect example of the exactness of preservation through 3200 years.

Hair

Samples of hair were taken from two mummies, both more than 4000 years old. Using an electron microscope with under-reflected fluorescent light, which is one of the most advanced technologies available for researching into infinitely small structures[14], evidence showed that the hair structure remained almost fully intact with only slight deterioration. The original pigment was still present, also. Aidan Cockburn's research in the United States used the same microscope to explore intracellular structures on mummified tissues.

Bone

The results from the analysis of bone are often not as surprising. There are many older samples of bone that has preserved quite well. The interesting part is that the microscopic features have been well preserved. This often does not happen in older samples without the benefit of mummification. The preservation in many cases is so effective that one could possibly mistake it for new bone.

Radiological Research

n 1903, a horse cab driver was driving three very interesting passengers. There were two famous anthropologists, Elliot Smith and Wood Jones. The third member of the entourage was probably the most interesting, Tuthmosis III, the 18^th D. king. The scientists had decided to transport the royal mummy to a private Cairo clinic for x-ray examinations. At the time, portable x-ray units did not exist, so the only option was to transport the body to a place where there was an x-ray available.

An interesting area where x-ray research has had an impact was to combat forgery. Forgers in Egypt would wrap a wooden frame and sell it as a true mummy. It was easy to trick buyers into taking home what they thought was an authentic Egyptian mummy. However, x-ray analysis of these "bodies" quickly revealed the truth.

Princess Makare

Another unexpected use of x-ray analysis is the defense of the character of a princess.[15] Some inscriptions said Princess Makare was a virgin as the Divine Votaress of Amon. Others said that she was the wife of Pharoah Pinedjem (21^st D., c. 1000) by whom she had a child. There was a small mummy next to her own that may indeed have been the body of the child. In 1968, radiology showed that the small mummy was in fact a baboon, not a human baby. Later, it was learned that she wanted her favorite animal mummified like herself and buried next to her. The x-ray was sufficiently detailed as to even identify what type of ape the animal was.

Thorax

Our discussion of the thorax and radiological examinations of the chest area will mainly consist of a comparison between the thoraxes of Ramesses II and his successor Merneptah. Ramesses had a full thorax, as shown in the x-rays by thick, convergent white masses. Merneptah's chest cavity was empty except for one package in the top right corner. The shadow of the package indicates the possible presence of an organ.

The x-rays show that Merneptah arms are symmetrically folded over his chest, while Ramesses were not symmetric.

An obvious question is to ask what is in the full thorax of Pharaoh Ramesses. We may only know by comparing the contents to that of other contemporary mummies. Normally, all organs would have been eviscerated and the cavity would be refilled with the mummified and wrapped organs. The contours of the packages in the thorax are blurred and they largely superimpose the image of the folded forearms. One obstruction to further research is a wall of resin dividing the abdomen from the chest that blocks any endoscopic research into the upper part of the torso. Perhaps more information could be gathered through plane-by-plane radiological research. This is known as polytomo-radiography.

Polytomo-Radiography

This is a radiographic method in which everything is x-rayed on a predetermined plane at a certain distance from a fixed point on the body at a certain small distance in relation to the shot taken at the back.[16] In this way, one can isolate each of the contents of the thorax. Aidan Cockburn used this process to uncover extremely precise and detailed information inside a skull. According to Bucaille, this process was not permitted in Egypt and it was not performed when the mummy of Ramesses II was examined in France.

Dental Analysis and Aging a Body

The easiest way to determine the age of death of a body is through dental analysis. The most common and usually most accurate method is the "pulp method". The pulp within the tooth narrows with age. Judging from this, Merneptah has been aged at 60-70 years old and Ramesses II was approximately 85-95 years.[17]

Ramesses II shows very much dental decay, including a huge hole caused by decay that separates the two roots in the first lower molar.[18] The roots are surrounded by an area of osteitis, inflammation of the bone. There was a lacuna (cavity, depression, hole) in the mandible (lower jaw) from dental infection. He was clearly suffering at the end of his life from pain caused by this damage. From this, questions arise regarding the opinion of his rulership during the Exodus. One wonders if he was suffering so severely, as he clearly was, how could he lead his troops after the Jews as the Bible says he did. These indications show it probably was not Ramesses.

DNA Analysis

Although there are infinitely many possibilities for the application of Deoxyribonucleic Acid analyses, so far only a few have been used. Until a few years ago, DNA testing had been used to identify gender, familial relationships, genetic and infectious diseases and (in the case of animals) the species.[19] So far, only small portions have been studied. The science is still in its infancy, and the full potential has not yet been realized.

Another very important application of DNA analysis has come to light recently. The study of the history of viruses in animals has been performed on specimens from the Sacred Animal Necropolis in Saqarra. The goal is to detect virus DNA in primates that may have been original hosts for these diseases. It is possible to find the hosts of many human-affecting diseases like HIV and others.

Works Cited

Bucaille, Dr. Maurice. Mummies of the Pharaohs: Modern Medical Investigations. Trans. Alistair D. Panell and Dr. Maurice Bucaille. 1987. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.

David, Rosalie and Eddie Tapp, eds. Evidence Embalmed: Modern Medicine and the Mummies of Ancient Egypt. Dover, NH: Manchester University Press, 1984.

Ikram, Salima, and Aidan Dodson. The Mummy in Ancient Egypt: Equipping the Dead for Eternity. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1998.

[1] Ikram, Salima and Aidan Dodson. The Mummy in Ancient Egypt: Equipping the Dead for Eternity. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1998, p. 103.

[7] Bucaille, Dr. Maurice. Mummies of the Pharaohs: Modern Medical Investigations. Translated from the French by Alastair D. Pannell and the Author. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990. p. 18